The History of Territorial Disputes in the South China Sea: A Powder Keg of Geopolitical Tension

The South China Sea, a sprawling body of water stretching over 3.5 million square kilometres, is at the centre of one of the most complex and heated territorial disputes in the world. Bordered by several nations, including China, the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, Brunei, and Taiwan, the region is not only crucial for international trade—handling over $5 trillion in annual maritime trade—but is also believed to be rich in untapped oil and natural gas reserves. As a result, the South China Sea has become a hotbed for territorial claims, military confrontations, and diplomatic standoffs, with tensions escalating over decades.

The disputes surrounding the South China Sea are multi-layered, rooted in historical grievances, legal interpretations, and the region's strategic importance. The major claimants have differing views on sovereignty, based on a mix of ancient maritime maps, colonial-era treaties, international law, and modern geopolitical strategies. This op-ed delves into the historical background of these territorial disputes, the shifting dynamics over time, and the wider implications for regional and global stability.

Early Beginnings: Historical Claims and Ancient Maps

The roots of the territorial disputes in the South China Sea can be traced back to ancient history, particularly to the claim that China has exercised sovereignty over the region for centuries. The Chinese government has long pointed to historical maps and records, dating back as far as the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE), which show Chinese ships navigating the waters and establishing control over various islands and reefs in the region.

China’s most significant historical claim stems from the so-called "Nine-Dash Line," a demarcation line that was first introduced by the Republic of China in 1947 and later adopted by the People’s Republic of China after its founding in 1949. This line covers almost 90% of the South China Sea, encroaching upon areas claimed by several Southeast Asian nations. Beijing argues that this historical claim establishes its sovereignty over the islands in the region, such as the Spratlys and Paracels, as well as the waters surrounding them.

For the other claimants, these historical justifications hold little legal weight, and they point to international law as a basis for their sovereignty claims. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), adopted in 1982, provides a framework for maritime disputes, establishing guidelines on territorial waters, exclusive economic zones (EEZs), and the rights of nations to claim ownership of islands, reefs, and rocks in the sea. It is here that the South China Sea dispute enters a modern and more complicated phase, with competing legal interpretations and conflicting claims.

The Colonial Legacy and the Emergence of Competing Claims

The colonial era also played a significant role in shaping the current disputes in the South China Sea. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, various European powers and the United States exerted influence over the region, though the contested waters were often largely ungoverned and not part of formal colonial holdings. After the fall of these colonial empires, the countries in the region—including the Philippines, Vietnam, Malaysia, and Brunei—began to assert their own territorial claims based on historical precedents, proximity to the disputed islands, and the need to safeguard their natural resources.

For instance, after gaining independence from the Spanish and American empires in the mid-20th century, the Philippines laid claim to a number of islands in the South China Sea, particularly the Spratlys. These claims were based on proximity, as well as the notion that these islands were part of Philippine territory historically and culturally. Vietnam, which has also had a long presence in the region, claims both the Paracel and Spratly Islands based on historical occupation and activities in the area since the 17th century.

Brunei, a small Southeast Asian nation, has claimed part of the South China Sea as its own Exclusive Economic Zone, particularly the waters surrounding the Louisa Reef. Malaysia, too, claims several islands and reefs in the Spratly group, bolstering its claims with historical fishing rights and proximity to its coastline.

These overlapping claims, combined with a lack of clear demarcation lines, have led to frequent clashes and diplomatic tensions, with no nation willing to back down from its territorial assertions.

Escalation in the Late 20th Century: Economic Interests and Military Confrontations

The end of the Cold War in the 1990s saw the emergence of new geopolitical dynamics in the South China Sea. The region became increasingly important due to its massive energy resources and its strategic location as a shipping route. As oil exploration and deep-sea drilling technologies advanced, the stakes of the territorial disputes grew exponentially. Nations with competing claims sought to assert their control over the islands and waters, not just for national pride, but for the lucrative benefits that access to oil, gas, and fisheries promised.

The first major military confrontation occurred in 1974 when China seized the Paracel Islands from South Vietnam after a bloody naval clash. This marked the beginning of an enduring pattern of military escalation, as other claimant nations—such as Vietnam and the Philippines—continued to bolster their positions with new military installations, security arrangements with external powers, and heightened diplomatic rhetoric.

In the 1990s and 2000s, China accelerated its claim to the entire South China Sea, undertaking large-scale infrastructure development and deploying military assets to fortified artificial islands. This led to increased military tensions, especially with the United States, which has repeatedly conducted Freedom of Navigation Operations (FONOPs) to challenge China's extensive claims. These operations, while not aimed at provoking military conflict, have been a point of contention between China and the US, with Beijing viewing them as an infringement on its territorial sovereignty.

The 2002 Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (DOC), signed by China and Southeast Asian nations, aimed to ease tensions and promote a peaceful resolution to the disputes. However, it failed to establish any concrete mechanisms for resolving the territorial claims. The South China Sea remained a flashpoint for military activity, diplomatic negotiations, and rising nationalist sentiment.

The 2016 Hague Ruling: A Diplomatic Setback for China

In 2016, the Permanent Court of Arbitration in The Hague delivered a landmark ruling on the South China Sea, specifically addressing the Philippines’ case against China’s Nine-Dash Line. The court ruled that China’s claims had no legal basis under UNCLOS and that it had violated the Philippines’ sovereign rights in its EEZ. The ruling was a significant blow to China, as it challenged the very foundation of its territorial claims in the region.

Despite the ruling, China has consistently rejected the decision and continues to expand its military presence and island-building activities in the South China Sea. The ruling has, however, been a diplomatic victory for the other claimants, especially the Philippines and Vietnam, who have used the decision to bolster their sovereignty claims. Internationally, the ruling reinforced the importance of respecting international law and upheld the idea that the South China Sea should be governed by the rule of law rather than force.

The Present Day: Militarisation and Global Implications

Today, the South China Sea remains a volatile region, with tensions periodically flaring up over naval skirmishes, military exercises, and diplomatic confrontations. The increasing militarisation of the region, particularly by China, has sparked concerns not just for the claimant nations but for the global community, as the South China Sea is one of the busiest maritime trade routes in the world.

The United States and other international powers, such as Japan and Australia, have increasingly expressed their concerns about China’s aggressive tactics in the region. Beijing’s growing naval capabilities and its insistence on its claims have alarmed the international community, with many nations viewing China’s actions as a challenge to the existing international order.

However, the United States has faced challenges in fully supporting the Southeast Asian claimants. While the US maintains its commitment to Freedom of Navigation and has called for the peaceful resolution of disputes, it has been reluctant to intervene directly in the conflict, especially with the rise of China as a global economic and military power.

In response to China’s assertiveness, some of the Southeast Asian nations, such as Vietnam and Malaysia, have strengthened their security ties with the United States and other regional powers, further complicating the geopolitics of the South China Sea. The ongoing standoff remains an enduring feature of the region’s complex geopolitical landscape.

A Long Road Ahead

The history of territorial disputes in the South China Sea is a story of competing national interests, historical grievances, and the search for resources. As the stakes continue to rise, the region remains a flashpoint for global geopolitical tensions. While diplomatic efforts, such as multilateral talks and legal challenges, have produced some progress, the territorial disputes are far from resolved.

The South China Sea is a classic example of how historical claims, modern geopolitics, and economic interests collide, and it remains to be seen whether peaceful negotiations or military confrontation will ultimately determine the future of this contentious and strategically vital region.